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], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Games, gender differences and, [>]

  Gelb, Steven A., [>]n.

  Gender differences and competition, [>]–[>]

  Generalization of rivalrous behavior, [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Generosity. See Altruism; Helping behavior

  Genes, cooperation among, [>]n. [>]

  Giamatti, A. Bartlett, [>]

  Gilligan, Carol, [>]–[>], [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Goal orientation. See Process orientation and product orientation

  Goldman, Morton, [>], [>]

  Golf, [>]

  Goodlad, John, [>]–[>], [>], [>]

  Gorney, Roderic, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]. [>]n. [>], n. [>], [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Gould, Stephen Jay, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Grades, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Group’s perspective, [>]–[>]

  Guilt, [>], [>], [>]

  Hardin, Garrett, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Harragan, Betty Lehan, [>], [>]

  Harvard University: educational practices of, [>]–[>]

  Harvey, John, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>] n. [>]

  Hayes, Marcia, [>]

  Health care and competition, [>]–[>]

  “Healthy competition” as contradiction in terms, [>], [>]–[>]

  Hechinger, Fred, [>]–[>]

  Heller, Joseph, [>]

  Helmreich, Robert, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Helping behavior, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]. See also Altruism

  Hendin, Herbert, [>]–[>], [>]

  Henry, Jules, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Heraclitus, [>]n.

  Hirsch, Fred, [>]

  Hobbes, Thomas, [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Hoch, Paul, [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Hoffman, Martin L., [>]n;.24, [>]n. [>]

  Hofstadter, Richard, [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Holt, John, [>]

  Homeostasis, [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Horner, Matina, [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Horney, Karen, [>], [>]n. , [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Huizinga, Johan, [>], [>]–[>]

  “Human nature,” [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Imagining the real, [>]

  Independent goal achievement, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Individualism, [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]. See also Conformity

  Inequity. See Economic maldistribution in competitive societies

  Insatiability, [>]

  Intentional competition: affected by structural competition, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]; as cause of structural competition, [>]; causes of, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; defined, [>]–[>]; as habitual, [>]; and hostility, [>], [>]–[>]; negatively related to success, [>]–[>]; prevalence in lower classes, [>]–[>]; reducing, [>]–[>]

  Interdisciplinary scholarship, [>]

  Intimacy, instant, in U.S., [>]

  Inuit of Canada, [>]

  Iroquois, [>]

  Isolation, [>], [>]. See also Competition: effect of, on relationships

  Jacklin, Carol, [>], [>]

  Japanese, [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Johnson, David and Roger, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Johnson, William O., [>], [>]n. [>]

  Journalism, [>]–[>], [>]

  Kafka, Franz, [>]

  Kagan, Jerome, [>]

  Kagan, Spencer, [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Kalahari Bushmen, [>]

  Kant, Immanuel, [>]n. [>]

  Kelley, Harold H., [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Keynes, John Maynard, [>]

  Kibbutzniks, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Kierkegaard, Sören, [>]

  Kikuyu of Kenya, [>]

  King, Gillian, [>]

  King of the Mountain, [>]

  Knowles, John, [>]

  Kohlberg, Lawrence, [>]

  Kohn, Alfie, [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Kropotkin, Petr, [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Kwakiutl, [>]

  Lakoff, Robin, [>]

  Landry, Tom, [>]

  Lasch, Christopher, [>]

  Lear, Norman, [>]

  Learning. See Education

  Learning theory, [>]–[>]

  Legal system, adversarial model of, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Leisure, [>]n.

  Lentz, Theodore F., [>], [>]n. [>]

  Leonard, George, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Levin, Jenifer, [>]

  Lewin, Kurt, [>]n.

  Lewis, C. S., [>]n. [>]

  Lewis, Sinclair, [>]

  Lewontin, Richard, [>], [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Lifton, Robert Jay, [>], [>]

  Little League, [>]–[>], [>]

  Locke, Edwin, [>]–[>]

  Lombardi, Vince, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Lorenz, Konrad, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Losing: and aggression, [>]; fear of, [>], [>]; penalties for, [>]–[>]; psychological implications of, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; vs. failure, [>]–[>]

  Love, competition for, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Lüschen, Günther, [>], [>]

  MacArthur, Douglas, [>], [>]

  Maccoby, Eleanor, [>], [>]

  Madsen, Millard C., [>]

  Malthus, Thomas, [>]

  Mansbridge, Jane, [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Marcel, Gabriel, [>]

  Martens, Rainer, [>]

  Maslow, Abraham, [>]n. , [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]

  Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [>]

  May, Mark A., [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  May, Rollo, [>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Mazlish, Elaine, [>]

  McLuhan, Marshall, [>]

  McMurty, John, [>]–[>]

  Mead, Margaret, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Means interdependence, task, [>]–[>]

  Meggyesy, Dave, [>]

  Men and competition, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Mexicans, [>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Michener, James, [>]

  Mills, C. Wright, [>]n. [>]

  Montagu, Ashley, [>], [>], [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Monty Python, [>]

  Moral reasoning: different for women, [>]–[>]; lower for aggressors, [>]–[>]; lower when competing, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Morgan, George W., [>]n. [>]

  Motive for success, [>], [>]

  Motive to avoid success. See Fear of success

  Moulton, Janice, [>]

  Movies. See Films

  Music competitions, [>], [>]

  Musical chairs, [>]

  Mutually exclusive goal attainment (MEGA), [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Nations, competition among, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Natural selection, [>]–[>]

  Nelson, Janice, [>]

  Nerd stigma, [>]

  Neurosis and competition, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Norwegians, [>]

  Novak, Michael, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Objectification, [>]–[>]

  Oedipal crisis, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Ogilvie, Bruce, [>], [>]

  Orlick, Terry, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. , [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  O’Roark, Mary Ann, [>]

  Orwell, George, [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Parenti, Michael, [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Parking, [>]

  Paterno, Joe, [>]

  Pepitone, Emmy, [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Perception of others’ competitiveness, [>], [>], [>]

  Percy, Walker, [>]

  Perspective-taking, [>], [>], [>]

  Petersdorf, Robert G., [>]

  Piaget, Jean, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Pines, Maya, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Play, [>], [>]–[>]; defined, [>]; as non-homeostatic, [>]–[>]; practical use
s of, [>]; relationship of, to competition, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]n. [>]; rules in, [>]

  Politics, competition vs. consensus in, [>], [>], [>]n. [>]; corruption in, [>], [>]

  Poverty and hunger, [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Pride, [>]n. [>]

  Primitive cultures, competition vs. cooperation in, [>]–[>]

  Prisoner’s Dilemma, [>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Problem-solving, under competition vs. cooperation, [>], [>]–[>]

  Process orientation and product orientation, [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]n.

  Productivity: from group’s perspective, [>]–[>]; from long-range perspective, [>]–[>]

  Prosocial behaviors in young children, [>], [>]

  “Pseudofeminism,” [>], [>]–[>]

  Psychoanalysis, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Psychological health: effect of competition on, [>]–[>]; effect of cooperation on, [>]–[>]; not a function of a society’s competitiveness, [>]; reduces need to compete, [>]

  Public vs. private sectors, [>], [>], [>]

  Pugh, George Edgin, [>]–[>]

  Quantification, [>]–[>]

  Rationalization, [>]

  Reagan, Ronald, [>]

  Realism, effect of arguments for, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Recreation, competition and. See Games, competitive; Sports

  Regulation, economic, [>]–[>], [>]

  Relationships: affirmation of, by women, [>]–[>]; among heterogeneous students, [>]–[>] ; fostered by cooperation, [>], [>]–[>], [>]. [>], [>]; ideal model of, [>]–[>]; poisoned by competition, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]; shaped by structure of interaction, [>], [>]–[>]

  Religions, competition among, [>]n. [>]

  Reporters. See Journalism

  Reward distribution, effect of, on performance, [>]

  Rewards. See Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation

  Rich, Yisrael, [>]–[>]

  Riesman, David, [>], [>], [>]

  Rigidity, psychological, [>]

  Risk-taking, [>]–[>]

  Rogers, Carl, [>]n. , [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Rose, I. Nelson, [>], [>]n-[>]

  Rosenberg, Morris, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, [>]n.

  Ruben, Harvey, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Rubin, Lillian, [>]

  Rubinstein, Ruth, [>]

  Rules: in competitive games, [>]; in noncompetitive games, [>]; in play, [>]

  Rural vs. urban cultures, competition and cooperation in, [>]

  Russell, Bertrand, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Ryan, Frank, [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Sadler, William A., [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Sage, George, [>]

  Sagotsky, Gerald, [>], [>]

  Sahlins, Marshall, [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Sapon-Shevin, Mara, [>], [>], [>]–[>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Sassen, Georgia, [>], [>]–[>]

  Scarcity: created by competition, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; definitions of, [>]–[>]; not a predictor of a society’s competitiveness, [>]–[>]

  Schaps, Eric, [>]–[>]

  Schniedewind, Nancy, [>]

  Schooling. See Education

  Science, competition vs. cooperation in, [>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Security, psychological, [>], [>]–[>]

  Seeley, John R., [>]

  Self-destructive behavior, [>], [>]

  Self-esteem, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Shaffer, Thomas L., [>]

  Sharan, Shlomo, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Sharan, Yael, [>]

  Sherif, Muzafer, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Shields, David L., [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Shirk, Susan, [>]

  Sibling rivalry, [>], [>]. See also Family: competition in

  Simpson, George Gaylord, [>]

  Sipes, Richard G., [>]n. [>]

  Slater, Philip, [>]

  Slavin, Robert, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Smith, Adam, [>]

  Sobel, Jeffrey, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Social change. See Collective action for social change

  Social interaction. See Relationships

  Sociobiology, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]n. [>],n. [>]

  Sorrentino, Richard, [>]

  Soviet Union: dissolution of, [>]; space race with, [>]n.

  Spence, Janet, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Spencer, Herbert, [>]

  Spitz, Mark, [>]

  Sports: anxiety in, [>]; as character builder, [>]–[>]; defended by conservatives, [>]; defined, [>]n. ; degree of competition in, [>]; effects on fans, [>]–[>]; excellence vs. competition in, [>]–[>], [>]; hostility and aggression in, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]. [>]. [>]. [>]; vs. play, [>]–[>], [>]; popularity of, in U.S., [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; as socializing agents, [>]–[>]; and women, [>]–[>], [>]n. [>]

  Sportsmanship, [>], [>], [>], [>]

  Stahelski, Anthony J., [>]–[>], [>]–[>]

  Stanciu, George, [>]

  Stock ownership, [>]

  Strick, Anne, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Structural competition: as cause of abuses, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; as cause of intentional competition, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]; defined, [>]–[>]; in schools, [>]; reducing, [>]–[>]

  Structural explanations, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>]. See also Structural competition

  Student collaboration, [>]–[>]

  Subjectivity of others, [>]

  Success as distinct from competition, [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Suicide, [>]

  Sullivan, Harry Stack, [>], [>]

  Survival, as distinct from competition, [>], [>]

  Survival of the fittest: in nature, [>]; in sports programs, [>]

  Suttie, Ian, [>]

  Tangu of New Guinea, [>]

  “Team player,” being a, vs. cooperation, [>]n.

  Teamwork, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]. See also Cooperation

  Television, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Tennis, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Tension-reduction theory. See Homeostasis

  Thayer, Frederick C., [>]

  Theft, [>]n.

  Thorne, Barrie, [>]–[>]

  Tjosvold, Dean, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Tracking, [>]–[>]n. [>]

  Trippett, Frank, [>]

  Trust, [>], [>], [>]

  Tutko, Thomas, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Ulcers, [>]

  Underwood, John, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Urban vs. rural cultures, competition and cooperation in, [>]

  Utopianism. See Realism, effect of arguments for

  Valenstein, Karen, [>]

  Values: in research, [>]–[>]; in school, [>]–[>]

  Vanderzwaag, Harold J., [>], [>]n. [>]

  Veroff, Joseph, [>]

  Victory, thrill of, [>], [>]–[>]

  Violence. See Aggression

  Wachtel, Paul, [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>], [>]n. [>]

  Walker, Stuart, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Waoranis of the Amazon, [>]

  War, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]n. [>]

  Warner, Gary, [>]

  Watergate, [>], [>]–[>], [>]

  Watson, John B., [>]

  Watzlawick, Paul, [>]–[>]

  Wax, Joseph, [>]

  We/they. See Common enemy

  Webb, Noreen, [>]

  Weisman, Mary-Lou, [>]

  Weisskopf, Walter, [>]

  Wellington, Arthur, [>]

  Whiting, Beatrice and John, [>]

  Wiens, John A., [>]

  Wilson, Edward O., [>], [>]–[>]n. [>]

  Winer, Frank, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Winner-take-all system, effect of, on performance, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Winning: as addictive, [>]–[>]; and aggression, [>]; fear of, [>]–[>]; pressure and, [>]–[>]; psychological implica
tions of, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; and virtue, [>]–[>]

  Winsten, Jay, [>]–[>]

  Wolff, Robert Paul, [>], [>]n. [>]

  Women and competition, [>]–[>]

  Workie, Abaineh, [>]

  World War I, [>]

  Wynne-Edwards, V. C., [>]

  Yarrow, Marian Radke, [>]n. [>], n. [>]

  Yerkes-Dodson Law, [>]

  Zero-sum game, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]

  Zimbardo, Philip, [>]–[>]

  Zunis, [>]

  About the Author

  ALFIE KOHN’S books include Punished by Rewards and No Contest: The Case Against Competition, as well as Beyond Displine and What to Look for in a Classroom. Descrilbed by Time magazine last year as “perhaps the country’s most outspoken critic of educational fixation on grades and test scores,” he is a popular lecturer, speaker to teachers, parents, and reasearchers across the country. The author currently resides in Belmont, Massachusetts.

  Footnotes

  * There are exceptions, however. Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers contend that human beings are fundamentally good—that is, that what we think of as healthy, productive, ethical behavior is the natural tendency of our biological natures. This approach hearkens back to the neo-Freudian tradition that includes Erich Fromm and Karen Horney, and, for that matter, all the way back to Jean-Jacques Rousseau. More recent evidence from developmental psychology conceivably could be used to support the hypothesis that altruism is inborn. See p. 201, note 24.

  [back]

  ***

  * This matter of interrelationship is noteworthy with respect to the nature/nurture disputes because the critics of biological determinism typically do not subscribe to a tabula rasa environmentalism. If these critics are sometimes represented as doing so, it is because this simplistic version of environmentalism has been thoroughly discredited by now and attributing it to one’s adversaries makes it easier to dismiss them. Moreover, to insist that we are not merely “survival machines—robot vehicles blindly programmed to preserve the selfish molecules known as genes”3 is not necessarily to cast our lot with the equally deterministic premises of, say, Skinnerian behaviorism. We can also challenge biological determinism from the vantage point of an affirmation of human freedom.